Introduction: Why Understanding Light Quantities Matters for Plant Cultivation
When it comes to plant cultivation, understanding how light intensity affects plant growth is crucial. Light isn’t just about brightness; it’s a source of energy that drives photosynthesis and influences plant behavior. This article delves into three critical ways of measuring light—radiometry, photometry, and photonmetry—and their associated quantities and units, to help agriculture enthusiasts and professionals optimize artificial light sources for plant growth.
Breaking Down the Measurements: Radiometry, Photometry, and Photonmetry
Light intensity can be categorized into three primary measurement systems:
- Radiometry – Measures light based on its energy.
- Photometry – Measures light as perceived by the human eye.
- Photonmetry – Measures light based on the number of photons, essential for understanding plant responses.
Each of these systems has specific applications and is defined by distinct units. Let’s break down the key quantities used in these systems in a simplified manner:
Radiometry: Measuring Light’s Energy
Radiometry is all about the energy carried by light. It’s widely used in scientific fields that focus on the physical properties of light, such as physics and engineering.
- Radiant Intensity [W/sr]: The energy emitted in a specific direction per unit solid angle. Think of it as how much power is radiated through a small cone of light.
- Radiant Flux (Radiant Power) [W]: The total power emitted, transmitted, or received as radiation. This is the “watts” of light.
- Radiant Energy [J]: The total energy over time. It’s the result of radiant flux multiplied by the time period.
- Irradiance [W/m²]: Power per unit area received by a surface. For instance, how much sunlight a leaf is exposed to in watts per square meter.
Actionable Tip: When selecting lighting for plant growth, check the radiant flux and irradiance values to ensure plants get the optimal energy for photosynthesis.
Photometry: Light Through Human Eyes
Photometry deals with how humans perceive light. It’s more concerned with brightness and visibility than energy.
- Luminous Intensity [cd]: Measures the amount of visible light in a given direction. It’s expressed in “candelas,” which are akin to the brightness of a single candle.
- Luminous Flux [lm]: Total visible light emitted by a source. You might recognize “lumens” from lightbulb packaging.
- Illuminance [lx]: The amount of light falling on a surface. One lux is one lumen per square meter—this helps in understanding how bright a surface appears to our eyes.
- Quantity of Light [lm s]: This measures the total luminous energy over time, and it’s useful for determining the duration of light exposure for growth stages.
Actionable Tip: Use illuminance measurements to ensure that your grow lights are adequately covering the surface area of your plants, preventing light burn or underexposure.
Photonmetry: Light for Plant Growth
Photonmetry measures light based on the number of photons, making it ideal for understanding plant interactions with light. Plants respond to photons because they drive photosynthesis.
- Photon Intensity [mol/s sr]: Number of photons emitted in a specific direction. This value helps in evaluating how well a light source can influence photochemical reactions.
- Photon Flux [mol/s]: Number of photons emitted over time. The more photons available, the more energy for plant processes like photosynthesis.
- Photon Number (Number of Photons) [mol]: Total number of photons over time.
- Photon Flux Density (Photon Irradiance) [mol/m² s]: Number of photons hitting a unit area of the surface. This is crucial for photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) measurements.
Actionable Tip: For horticultural purposes, always consider photon flux density (PPFD) to determine if your light source is providing sufficient energy for healthy plant growth.
Spectral Distribution: Understanding Wavelengths
The term “spectral distribution” refers to how light intensity varies with wavelength. In plant cultivation, wavelengths between 400–700 nm are known as Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR), critical for photosynthesis. Understanding how your light source distributes energy across these wavelengths will help ensure plants receive the right light quality.
- Spectral Irradiance [W/m² nm]: Power of light per unit area at each wavelength.
- Spectral Photon Flux Density [mol/m² s nm]: Number of photons per unit area at each wavelength.
Actionable Tip: Use PAR meters to assess if your grow lights are delivering the optimal spectrum of light, and adjust the light source if necessary to enhance plant growth.
Concluding Summary: Key Takeaways for Light Measurement
- Radiometry is energy-based and measures the physical power of light (Watts).
- Photometry is luminosity-based and measures visible light as perceived by the human eye (Lumens, Lux).
- Photonmetry is photon-based and measures the number of photons critical for plant growth (PPFD).
Bullet Points for Infographics:
- Radiometric Quantities:
- Radiant Intensity: Power per solid angle (W/sr).
- Radiant Flux: Total power emitted (W).
- Irradiance: Power per unit area (W/m²).
- Photometric Quantities:
- Luminous Intensity: Brightness in a given direction (cd).
- Luminous Flux: Total visible light (lm).
- Illuminance: Brightness per unit area (lx).
- Photonmetric Quantities:
- Photon Flux: Number of photons emitted over time (mol/s).
- Photon Flux Density: Number of photons hitting a surface (mol/m² s).
- Actionable Tips:
- Use PAR meters for photonmetric measurements.
- Check irradiance values for optimal energy distribution.
- Consider the spectrum for maximizing photosynthesis.
This structured understanding of light measurements will aid in optimizing light environments, ensuring better plant health and yield.
The excerpt you shared comes from a chapter titled “Basics of LEDs for Plant Cultivation” by Kazuhiro Fujiwara, focusing on the foundational knowledge required for using LEDs in plant cultivation. Below is a summary of the key points:
Key Concepts of LEDs in Plant Cultivation
- Definitions of LED Product Terms:
- LED: A semiconductor diode that emits light when current flows through it.
- LED Package: Encapsulates one or more LED dies with potential optical and electrical components.
- LED Module: Incorporates LED packages on a circuit board, with possible control gear and additional components.
- LED Control Gear: Regulates voltage or current for LED modules.
- LED Lamp: A light source with one or more LED modules and electrical/thermal interfaces.
- LED Light Source: A broader term referring to any device that uses LED technology for illumination.
- LED Luminaire: A complete lighting unit designed to incorporate one or more LED light sources.
- LED Lighting System: Consists of one or more LED light sources with luminaires and controllers.
- Light-Emitting Principle: LEDs emit light due to the recombination of electrons and holes in the p-n junction of the semiconductor. The energy released in this process corresponds to the wavelength of the emitted light.
- LED Package Configuration Types:
- The primary configurations include lamp type, surface-mount device (SMD) type, high-power type, and flux type, each differing in design and application.
- Basic Terms for Expressing Characteristics:
- Forward Current: The current flowing through an LED in the forward direction.
- Half Width: The width of the spectrum at 50% of maximum radiant flux, indicating monochromaticity.
- Luminous Intensity: The luminous flux per unit solid angle in a specific direction.
- Radiant Flux: The total radiant energy emitted per unit time.
- Peak Wavelength: The wavelength with the maximum radiant flux in the spectral distribution curve.
- Viewing Half Angle: The angle from the LED axis where the radiant intensity drops to half its maximum.
- Optical, Electrical, and Radiational Characteristics:
- Forward current increases exponentially with forward voltage.
- Luminous intensity is proportional to forward current at a constant ambient temperature.
- Luminous intensity decreases with increasing ambient temperature, indicating thermal sensitivity.
- Maximum allowable forward current decreases with rising ambient temperature.
- Lighting Methods:
- Continuous lighting provides steady light during the photoperiod.
- Intermittent or pulsed lighting turns on and off in cycles, often used when short pulses of light are needed.
- Radiant Flux Control Methods:
- Constant-Current Operation: Controls radiant flux by regulating forward current.
- Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Uses short, repetitive cycles of light to control radiant flux. The duty ratio (light-on period to total cycle time) adjusts the overall flux.
- Special Considerations for Plant Cultivation:
- Photosynthetic Efficiency: Continuous light is generally more effective for photosynthesis compared to pulsed light at the same average PPFD (Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density).
- Pulsed Light Limitations: While it may increase light-use efficiency, pulsed light doesn’t necessarily boost net photosynthetic rate compared to continuous light.
This chapter emphasizes the fundamental understanding of LED technology and its application in controlled plant environments, discussing technical details like LED types, performance metrics, and control methods, which are crucial for optimizing plant growth and energy use in horticultural settings.
Special Requirements for LED Lamps to Cultivate Plants
LED lamps used for plant cultivation have specific requirements that differ from those of general lighting. The key factor is the relative spectral distribution of light emitted from the lamps. For photosynthesis, it is essential that most of the emitted photons fall within the 400–700 nm range, known as photosynthetic photons. Additionally, in high humidity environments such as plant factories or greenhouses, moisture and drip-proof LED lamps are necessary due to the risk of exposure to water or nutrient solutions. For greenhouses using sulfur fumigation (to control fungal diseases), LEDs resistant to sulfurization corrosion are required. This is because sulfur can corrode the silver components in the LED packages, leading to performance degradation.
27.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using LED Lamps in Plant Cultivation
27.10.1 Advantages of Using LED Lamps
LEDs have several benefits over traditional lighting forms like fluorescent lamps (FLs) and high-pressure sodium lamps (HPSLs):
- Compact and Durable: LEDs are small, robust, and have a long lifespan.
- Low Heat Emission: They have a cool emitting temperature, which is beneficial for maintaining optimal growing conditions.
- Fast Response Time: LEDs can be turned on and off quickly with stable output.
- Controllability: The photon flux density and spectral power distribution can be controlled more precisely with LEDs compared to traditional lights.
- Energy Efficiency: LEDs are more energy-efficient, and they lack hazardous substances such as mercury.
- Flexibility in Light Spectrum: LEDs can produce a variety of light spectra by using different LED types, enabling fine-tuned control over plant growth.
Research has shown that by adjusting the timing and ratio of red and blue light, the fresh weight of certain plants, like cos lettuce, can be significantly increased. Advanced LED systems with multiple wavelengths have been developed for research purposes, allowing for precise control over light environments to optimize plant cultivation.
27.10.2 Disadvantages of Using LED Lamps
The main disadvantage of using LED lamps for plant cultivation is their high initial cost. Although LED prices have been decreasing, the initial investment is still higher compared to conventional lighting systems. However, the cost may be offset by the reduced operating expenses, as LEDs are more energy-efficient and have lower maintenance costs.
For instance, a study showed that replacing 3000 40-W fluorescent lamps with 22.5-W LED lamps can save approximately 10 million yen (around $95,000) per year in electricity costs. Additionally, LED lighting can reduce cooling costs, as they generate less heat than traditional lamps.
Another drawback is the limited availability of LED lamps specifically designed for plant cultivation, in contrast to the wide range of fluorescent and HPSL options available for this purpose.
27.11 Luminous Efficacy and Energy-Photon Conversion Efficacy for Plant Cultivation
27.11.1 Luminous Efficacy
Luminous efficacy is the measure of luminous flux (measured in lumens) obtained per unit of electric power input (measured in watts). This measure is widely used for conventional light sources like incandescent lamps and HPSLs. However, for LED lamps, the luminous efficacy often considers the total efficacy of the lamp, which includes the luminaire, as defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
The theoretical maximum luminous efficacy of an ideal light source is 683 lm/W at a wavelength of 555 nm. In contrast, a yellow-phosphor white LED has a feasible maximum luminous efficacy of around 260 lm/W.
27.11.2 Energy-Photon Conversion Efficacy for Plant Cultivation
Unlike luminous efficacy, which measures light in terms of human perception, energy-photon conversion efficacy is more relevant for plant cultivation. It is defined as the number of photons emitted per unit of electric energy input, or the photon flux obtained per unit of electric power input. For photosynthesis, only photosynthetic photons (400–700 nm) are considered, making “photosynthetic photon number efficacy” a more suitable measure for evaluating light sources used in plant cultivation.
The paper by Eiji Goto titled “Measurement of Photometric and Radiometric Characteristics of LEDs for Plant Cultivation” provides a comprehensive analysis of how different light parameters influence plant growth and development. Here is a summary of its main points:
Key Parameters for Plant Light Environment
- Spectral Distribution Curve:
- Represents the spectral composition of light received by a plant.
- Measured using a spectroradiometer, covering the wavelength range of 300–800 nm, which includes the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) range (400–700 nm) and photomorphogenic response wavelengths.
- Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD):
- Indicates the density of photons within the PAR range that are used in photosynthesis.
- Typically expressed in μmol m² s⁻¹ and calculated by integrating the spectral photon flux density.
- Quantum sensors (e.g., LI-COR LI-190 series) are often used for measurement, but spectroradiometers provide more accurate values.
- Ratio of Photon Fluxes in Specific Wavelength Ranges:
- Ratios such as blue to red (B) and red to far-red (R) affect plant morphogenesis (e.g., stem elongation, leaf development).
- The Rratio is linked to the spectral properties of the phytochrome system, influencing photomorphogenic responses.
- Summary Tables of Light Characteristics:
- Provides a comparative view of different light sources, showing values such as PPFD, B, Rratios, and efficiency metrics, which help in evaluating and designing light environments for plants.
LED Lighting System Characteristics
- Spectral Distribution:
- The spectral radiant flux distribution is measured to ensure the LEDs emit the required light quality for plant cultivation.
- Angular Distribution of Luminous Intensity:
- Assessed using a goniophotometric measurement system.
- Useful in estimating light distribution over plant canopies, helping optimize lighting setup in greenhouses or plant factories.
- Photosynthetically Active Radiant Energy Efficiency:
- Calculated by dividing the radiant flux of PAR by power consumption (in Joules per second).
- Photosynthetic Photon Number Efficacy:
- Calculated as photon flux divided by power consumption, which helps in evaluating the light output efficiency per unit of energy consumed.
Practical Applications
- Tables of Light Source Characteristics:
- Summarize properties like PPFD, B, R, and other efficiency metrics for various LED types and settings.
- Enable comparisons between different LED systems and aid in selecting optimal lighting setups.
Importance of Accurate Measurements
The paper emphasizes that accurate measurement of light characteristics is crucial for optimizing plant cultivation. Tools like spectroradiometers and goniophotometric measurement systems are essential for detailed assessments. Moreover, understanding the spectral and photon flux properties can significantly enhance the design and implementation of LED lighting systems for horticultural applications.
The document provides extensive technical information and references relevant research, such as McCree (1972) and Sager et al. (1988), to support the development of effective LED lighting solutions tailored to plant cultivation needs
This excerpt from Akira Yano’s work in the book LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture provides a detailed overview of the engineering principles, configuration, and operation of LED lighting systems for plant cultivation. It covers various aspects such as LED circuit design, heat dissipation, and photon flux distribution. Here’s a brief summary and key points:
Summary and Key Points:
- Advantages of LEDs for Plant Cultivation:
- LEDs can emit thermal-free, monochromatic light, making them ideal for precision cultivation.
- They have a small form factor, low energy consumption, and long lifespan.
- LEDs enable specific light “recipes” by combining different wavelengths to optimize plant growth, unlike traditional broad-spectrum lights.
- LED Configuration and Design:
- LED lighting systems for plant cultivation can be customized based on different wavelengths to achieve specific light recipes.
- LEDs do not emit infrared radiation, allowing close proximity to plants without the risk of heat damage, which is especially useful in multi-layer cultivation systems like PFALs (Plant Factories with Artificial Lighting).
- LEDs are robust and can be adapted for different cultivation environments, including greenhouses and plant factories.
- Principles of LED Function:
- The function of an LED is based on the semiconductor p-n junction, where electron-hole recombination results in light emission.
- Different materials such as InGaN, GaP, and AlGaAs are used to achieve emissions in the blue, green, and red spectrums respectively.
- Emission Control and Circuit Design:
- LED emissions can be regulated using basic circuits with resistors, transistors, or current-regulating diodes (CRDs).
- A forward voltage is applied to control the forward current, which directly influences the light output.
- Heat Dissipation:
- Efficient heat dissipation is crucial for maintaining LED performance and longevity.
- Heat is managed using conductive materials, heat sinks, and sometimes active cooling systems like fans.
- Proper heat management extends the LED lifespan, which can reach up to 50,000 hours under optimal conditions.
- Lighting Modes and Plant Response:
- LEDs allow for dynamic light regulation such as pulse width modulation (PWM) to control light intensity and mimic natural light cycles.
- Modulating light parameters like intensity and spectrum in response to plant physiological feedback can optimize growth and morphology.
- Photon Flux Distribution:
- Achieving uniform photon flux density (PPFD) on the plant bed is essential to prevent uneven growth.
- LED placement and intensity must be carefully designed to avoid high central PPFD values and ensure even distribution across the growing area.
This chapter by Akira Yano provides a foundational understanding of LED lighting systems for agricultural use, highlighting their flexibility and potential for precise control of light conditions to optimize plant growth
The chapter “Energy Balance and Energy Conversion Process of LEDs and LED Lighting Systems” by Akira Yano addresses the efficient conversion of electrical energy into light energy, and subsequently into chemical energy within plant systems in Plant Factories with Artificial Lighting (PFALs). This chapter delves into the following key topics:
1. Overview of Energy Conversion in PFALs
- Electrical energy is converted into light energy through various lamps, including LEDs, which are used to provide plants with photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
- Plants utilize light energy not only for photosynthesis but also as a signaling mechanism for growth and development (photomorphogenesis).
- Efficient use of both electrical and light energy is crucial to the overall energy balance and economic viability of PFALs.
2. Luminous Efficacy and Conversion Efficiency
- Luminous efficacy measures the efficiency of converting electrical input into visible light, expressed in lumens per watt (lm/W). LEDs have achieved luminous efficacies of over 300 lm/W in recent developments.
- Conversion efficiency (η_el_PAR) from electrical energy to PAR is around 0.4 for LEDs, which is higher compared to other light sources like fluorescent lamps (0.26) and high-pressure sodium lamps (0.38).
3. Energy Use Efficiencies
- PAR Energy Use Efficiency (η_PAR_dm): Defined as the increment of chemical energy in plants relative to the PAR energy supplied. It is influenced by factors like plant species, growth conditions, and lighting strategies.
- Electrical Energy Use Efficiency (η_el_dm): The efficiency of converting electrical energy into stored chemical energy in plant dry mass. This is a product of electrical-to-PAR conversion efficiency (η_el_PAR) and PAR energy use efficiency (η_PAR_dm).
4. Factors Affecting Energy Use Efficiency
- Efficiency is affected by the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, which can vary depending on the plant species, light intensity, and light spectrum.
- Environmental conditions such as temperature, CO₂ concentration, and humidity, as well as plant physiological conditions, play a significant role in determining efficiency.
- Only about 35% of the light energy emitted by LEDs is typically intercepted by the plant canopy in a PFAL setup. This suggests potential for doubling efficiency through improved lighting designs and light utilization strategies.
5. Potential Improvements in Energy Efficiency
- Improving light utilization by optimizing the ratio of light that reaches the plant canopy (U), absorption efficiency by leaves (α), and conversion of absorbed light into chemical energy (f).
- Enhancing the design of lighting systems using reflectors and reducing the distance between lamps and plant canopy to increase PAR exposure.
- Developing strategies to increase the light use efficiency, such as adjusting plant density and canopy architecture to maximize light interception.
6. Energy and Mass Balance Equations
- Several equations are provided to quantify energy and mass balances, including the relation between electrical input, PAR energy output, and final chemical energy in plant dry mass.
- These equations consider multiple factors, such as the energy emitted by LEDs, light utilization, and absorption, as well as the net photosynthetic rate of the plants.
7. Practical Applications and Case Studies
- Case studies with crops like lettuce and radish show practical applications of the theoretical framework.
- Strategies for improving electrical energy use efficiency include the use of dichromatic or trichromatic light sources, optimizing the photoperiod and light spectrum, and using reflectors or targeted illumination systems.
This chapter emphasizes a holistic approach to improving energy efficiency in PFALs by integrating advancements in LED technology, optimization of cultivation conditions, and innovative lighting system designs.
The chapter by Motoharu Takao on “Health Effects of Occupational Exposure to LED Light: A Special Reference to Plant Cultivation Works in Plant Factories” from LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture discusses the occupational health risks associated with the use of LED lighting in plant factories and greenhouses. It emphasizes the unique properties of LED lights, such as high energy efficiency and customizable spectral output, that have transformed plant cultivation practices. However, it points out that the impact of these artificial lighting environments on worker health and ergonomics has not been adequately addressed.
Key Points from the Chapter
- Occupational Health Concerns:
- Blue Light Exposure (BL): Blue light, which is utilized for plant photosynthesis, can have harmful effects on humans. Chronic exposure to blue light has been linked to disruptions in circadian rhythm, increased risk of chronic conditions like diabetes and breast cancer, and damage to the retina and lens of the eye.
- Ultraviolet Light (UV-C): UV-C light, used for its germicidal properties, can cause serious eye conditions and other long-term health issues.
- Impact on Vision and Color Perception:
- The chapter delves into how LED lighting can interfere with workers’ ability to distinguish colors accurately, which is crucial for plant cultivation activities such as identifying the ripeness of fruits or detecting plant diseases.
- High-intensity lighting and glare from LEDs can reduce visual performance and productivity.
- Circadian Rhythm Disruption:
- The circadian rhythm governs daily physiological and psychological functions. Disruption of this rhythm can lead to health problems like insomnia and mood disorders.
- The chapter highlights that working in environments with artificial lighting, especially under night shift conditions, can impair circadian rhythm and increase the risk of chronic health issues.
- Proposed Improvements:
- There is a need for occupational health guidelines and regulations specific to lighting conditions in plant factories and greenhouses.
- Optimizing lighting conditions by using luminaires with high color-rendering properties could mitigate some of these health risks, improve visual performance, and ensure a healthier work environment for laborers.
The chapter underscores the importance of considering worker health in the design of plant factories that use LED lighting, advocating for better regulation and tailored lighting solutions to protect occupational health and improve productivity.
This text provides a comprehensive overview of the effects of artificial lighting, particularly blue light (BL) and ultraviolet C (UV-C) light, on human health, specifically focusing on laborers in plant factories and greenhouses. Below is a concise summary of the key points:
Key Points Summary:
- Intrinsic Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs):
- ipRGCs contain melanopsin, a photopigment that plays a crucial role in regulating circadian rhythms by transducing light into electrical signals sent to the brain.
- Blue Light (BL) Sensitivity:
- Human ipRGCs are most sensitive to blue light at approximately 480 nm.
- Common LED lights used in plant cultivation emit blue light (around 460 nm) which can disrupt laborers’ circadian rhythms, potentially leading to insomnia and disorders like delayed sleep phase syndrome.
- Health Implications of Blue Light:
- Exposure to blue light, especially in the evening, can delay circadian phases and contribute to chronic health issues, including diabetes mellitus.
- Eyeglasses with blue light filters are recommended to mitigate these effects.
- Impact on Eye Health:
- Strong blue light exposure can cause chronic retinal damage and clouding of the lens, leading to conditions like cataracts.
- Yellow-tinted eyeglasses can help prevent such chronic eye diseases.
- Hazardous Effects of UV-C Light:
- UV-C light, primarily used for sterilization, poses risks to eye health, including corneal damage and lens opacification.
- The harmful effects of UV-C are greater than those of blue light, necessitating strict precautions in workplaces.
- Glare in Work Environments:
- Glare can significantly impair visual performance and comfort, negatively affecting productivity in plant factories.
- Effective glare control methods include modifying light sources, using anti-glare eyeglasses, and optimizing workplace layouts to reduce reflected glare.
- Recommendations for Lighting Environment:
- Use broad-spectrum LED or fluorescent lamps to mimic natural daylight for plant illumination.
- Implement measures to reduce blue light exposure, especially during night shifts, by utilizing yellow-tinted lenses.
- Keep UV-C lamps out of sight and ensure proper management of glare to enhance the work environment and safeguard workers’ health.
- Need for Further Research:
- The text emphasizes the lack of studies optimizing lighting in plant factories, suggesting a need for comprehensive surveys and regulations to improve occupational lighting environments.
Conclusion
This discussion highlights the importance of understanding the effects of artificial lighting on health, particularly for laborers working in environments with significant exposure to blue light and UV-C. Implementing effective lighting strategies and protective measures can enhance workplace safety, productivity, and overall health.
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