The Impact of Housing on Dairy Cow Behaviour, Health, and Welfare:

An In-Depth Review for Dairy Housing

Introduction: The Significance of Cow Housing

Dairy farming has evolved significantly over the centuries, transitioning from small-scale pasture-based systems to large-scale, intensively managed indoor operations. While housing dairy cows offers many advantages, such as improved health management and feeding efficiency, it also poses challenges to their natural behaviour and welfare. This article explores the multifaceted impacts of different housing systems on dairy cow behaviour, health, and welfare, providing insights and actionable tips for farmers and agriculture enthusiasts.

Historical Context and Evolution of Dairy Cow Housing

For centuries, dairy cows were housed near or in farmhouses to produce milk for local consumption. The 19th and early 20th centuries saw a shift to pasture-based systems in temperate climates, thanks to advancements in milk transport and processing. By the late 20th century, the demand for milk products and improved grass conservation techniques led to more extended indoor housing periods. Milking parlours and mechanized feeding systems enabled larger herd sizes, reducing labour requirements and further intensifying dairy farming.

Modern Housing Systems and Cow Welfare

Today, most large-scale dairy farms use loose housing systems with cubicles or deep straw bedding, each with distinct welfare implications:

• Loose Housing with Deep Bedding: Preferred for better comfort, health, and hygiene. Lower mortality rates and reduced welfare issues compared to cubicle systems.
• Cubicle Systems (Free Stalls): More common due to lower labour costs but associated with increased leg injuries, behavioural issues, and higher mortality rates.
• Tie Stalls: Historically prevalent but now less common due to significant welfare problems like leg injuries, restricted movement, and higher labour demands.
  
  

Behavioural Impacts of Housing on Dairy Cows

Housing significantly alters dairy cow behaviour, affecting their ability to perform natural activities like foraging, ruminating, and social interactions.

Foraging and Ruminating

Housed cows typically forage for less time compared to grazing cows due to the ease of access to conserved feed. This reduction in foraging time can lead to abnormal behaviours like feed tossing and tongue rolling. Providing access to pasture, even for short periods, can mitigate these issues. Ensuring comfortable lying conditions indoors is crucial for maintaining rumination times, which are essential for proper digestion.

Thermoregulatory Behaviour

Housing offers protection from extreme weather but can also exacerbate heat stress, especially in poorly designed buildings. Proper ventilation and shading are vital to prevent heat stress, while insulated water pipes and adequate bedding can help mitigate cold stress.

Social Behaviour and Space Needs

Cows are social animals that thrive in environments where they can synchronize their activities with the herd. Limited space in housing systems increases competition for resources, leading to stress and reduced welfare, especially for lower-ranking cows. Providing ample feeding and resting spaces can reduce these conflicts and improve overall welfare.

Grooming and Agonistic Behaviours

Grooming behaviours, both self-grooming and allogrooming, indicate good health but can also signal understimulation or social conflict in housed cows. Agonistic behaviours, such as aggression and competition for resources, are more frequent in housing systems, increasing the risk of injuries and lameness.

Actionable Tips for Improving Cow Welfare in Housing Systems

1. Enhance Comfort: Use deep straw bedding or well-designed cubicles to improve cow comfort and reduce mortality rates.
2. Facilitate Natural Behaviours: Provide access to pasture or exercise areas to allow cows to forage, graze, and exhibit natural behaviours.
3. Optimize Housing Design: Ensure proper ventilation, adequate space for feeding and resting, and raised troughs to minimize physical strain.
4. Monitor Health and Behaviour: Regularly observe cows for signs of stress, injuries, or abnormal behaviours, and adjust management practices accordingly.
5. Provide Enrichment: Introduce environmental enrichments, such as scratching posts or toys, to reduce boredom and encourage natural behaviours.

Summary for Instagram Reels and Canva Infographics

• Dairy cow housing has evolved from pasture-based to intensive indoor systems.
• Modern housing systems impact cow behaviour, health, and welfare.
• Loose housing with deep bedding is preferable for cow comfort.
• Proper housing design and management can mitigate welfare issues.
• Regular monitoring and environmental enrichment are essential for cow welfare.

By understanding and addressing the impacts of housing on dairy cows, farmers can enhance the welfare and productivity of their herds, ensuring a sustainable and ethical approach to dairy farming.

Locomotion and Resting

Locomotion

Locomotion is essential for cows to access water, food, herd mates, and safety. Cows at pasture may walk 1-13 km per day, depending on factors such as pasture size, grazing system, and water source location. In loose-housing systems, cows typically walk 300-900 meters daily though distances can range from 200 to 2,500 meters . Exercise is crucial for muscle and bone development and overall locomotor function. Cows that exercise daily are more agile and experience fewer calving-related diseases, mastitis, and leg problems compared to cows in tie-stalls

Cows in tie-stalls exhibit increased locomotion, or rebound behavior, when allowed into a paddock, indicating a lack of sufficient exercise indoors. Cows in cubicle houses with slatted floors have less flexibility in their hock and elbow joints compared to those on pasture. On solid concrete floors, cows walk slowly and focus on the floor. Concrete floors, especially with deep slurry, cause cows to move stiffly and with restraint. Cows slip more on concrete than on earth, although deep slurry can stabilize leg action. Slippery floors lead to reduced and abnormal locomotion, lying times, and lying down and standing up motions. Dairy cows prefer walking and standing on rubber floors Low lighting impairs walking in cubicle houses, causing cows to avoid poorly lit passageways . Buildings that support exercise are important for cow welfare, although the minimal exercise requirements are unknown.

Restricted locomotion and resting in cubicle houses negatively impact cow health. In contrast, pasture allows for unobstructed locomotion, natural lying down and standing up motions, and comfortable resting.

Standing Up and Lying Down

Neck and head rails in cubicles force cows to back out when standing up and ensure faeces are deposited in the alley rather than on the cubicle bed. These rails can obstruct natural motions and weight distribution, causing unwanted leg loading and abnormal behaviors, such as standing up with the front legs first. These problems are especially pronounced for large cows or when cubicle design does not meet recommended standards. High-quality deep straw or sand bedding, flexible separations, and sufficient cubicle dimensions improve comfort. The time taken to lie down, which is longer on concrete floors than at pasture and reduced by soft bedding, can indicate comfort levels. Abnormal lying down and standing up motions cause injuries and indicate reduced welfare.

Resting

The duration of lying time indicates cows’ satisfaction with the lying area. Cows lie longer and stand less in cubicles with rubber mats compared to concrete floors with sawdust bedding. They prefer soft bedding and large cubicles. Providing more than one cubicle per cow allows them to stretch their legs in a laterally recumbent position, similar to pasture behavior .Standard cubicles often lack the softness and space found at pasture, leading to worse welfare. Given the choice, cows prefer to rest outside on grass, spending more time lying at pasture than in cubicles.

2.2.5. Reproductive Behaviour

Cows on hard, moist, and slippery floors move cautiously and show less oestrus behavior Limited space in cubicle houses also reduces oestrus behavior expression, potentially signaling welfare issues related to obstructed locomotion. Cows on earth floors exhibit more mounting and standing reflexes and a longer oestrus period than those on concrete floors, even if dry and rough.

2.3. Health and Reproduction in Relation to Housing

Locomotor Apparatus

Housing can negatively impact the locomotor apparatus, leading to higher lameness rates compared to grazing systems. However, grazing systems can also cause lameness if cows walk too fast over rough tracks, leading to balance loss and injuries.

Within housing systems, lameness susceptibility varies. Loose housing is associated with more lameness than tie stalls, particularly without rubber mats, due to wet, slippery, and rough floors and increased cow interactions. Extreme cold conditions and frozen floors increase injury risks. Slatted floors pose significant risks due to uneven pressure and defective slats. Floor scrapers can help reduce lameness on slatted floors by creating drier surfaces. High incidences of infectious claw diseases, such as footrot and digital dermatitis, are associated with housing, Cubicle houses, with their small, hard cubicles and slippery, slurry-covered floors, facilitate injuries, locomotion problems, and lameness. Transitioning cows from pasture to housing increases locomotor problems . Regular immersion in slurry softens hooves, making them vulnerable to wear and injury.

Rails and hard floors in cubicles cause significant foot injuries. Soft rubber mats or mattresses reduce the need for bedding but lead to more leg injuries compared to high-quality straw bedding. Cubicles with rubber mats and, to a lesser extent, mattresses result in more skin lesions and swollen hocks than straw yards. Sand provides comfortable bedding with low mastitis risk. Hard floors increase skin lesions, swellings, and injuries, especially in high-yielding, large cows. Daily pasture access can reduce lameness and hock lesions and increase longevity. Overall, cubicle house conditions likely contribute to injuries, locomotion issues, and lameness, which can be painful and significantly reduce cow welfare.

Udder Health

Mastitis

• Incidence and Environmental Influence:
  • High somatic cell counts in milk, indicating mammary gland inflammation, are more frequent in cows kept indoors permanently.
  • Grazing is linked with a lower incidence of mastitis as pasture environments reduce infection pressure and the likelihood of teat injuries.
  • An epidemiological study in Sweden found higher mastitis incidence during housing periods compared to pasture periods, with a lower incidence in loose-housed cows compared to tied cows.
  • Summer Mastitis: Increased incidence of mastitis transmitted by head flies during grazing can be mitigated by preventive measures, maintaining the overall positive effect of grazing on udder health.
• Cleanliness and Infection Sources:
  • A Canadian survey revealed that tie stalls had 27 cases of mastitis per 100 cow years, whereas loose housing had 19 cases per 100 cow years due to easier mechanical cleaning.
  • Environmental bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, are more common in loose housing due to increased contact with feces, while tie stalls see more transmissible pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococci, often spread through shared cleaning cloths.

Metabolic Disorders

• Diet and Housing:
  • The prevalence of metabolic disorders is closely linked to diet, which varies with housing type. Indoor housing allows for more controlled and balanced diets, reducing mineral imbalances.
  • Grazing Risks:
    • Grazing, especially on spring grass, can lead to hypomagnesemia due to high potassium and protein content.
    • Young, leafy legumes in swards increase the risk of bloat.
    • High protein to carbohydrate ratio in pasture grass, particularly when fertilized, can lead to metabolic issues such as high nitrite levels in the rumen and blood, potentially causing oxygen transport issues, vitamin A and iodine metabolism interference, and abortion.
  • Conserved Forage Risks:
    • Silage can introduce microorganisms, mycotoxins, and excess acidity, posing health hazards.

Infectious Diseases and Parasites

• Parasitic Infections:
  • Indoor housing reduces the prevalence of parasites like gastro-intestinal worms, lung worms, and liver fluke compared to grazing.
  • Parasitic infections can cause significant health issues, especially in cows that haven’t developed immunity at a young age.
  • Housed cows are more likely to contact feces, increasing the risk of serious infections.
• Environmental Pathogen Risks:
  • Grazing on heavily contaminated pastures can lead to disease transmission. Silage from recently grazed pastures may also harbor pathogens.
  • Wildlife, such as rabbits and badgers, can spread diseases like paratuberculosis and bovine tuberculosis.

Environmental Pollution

• Indoor Pollution:
  • Poor ventilation in indoor housing can lead to harmful levels of volatile substances like ammonia and sulfur compounds, and high concentrations of microbes and dust can cause respiratory problems.
• Outdoor Pollution Risks:
  • Grazing cows might be exposed to local environmental pollutants like lead and contaminated water sources

Reproduction and Partus Related Disorders

• Fertility and Housing:
  • Some studies indicate higher fertilization rates for grazing cows compared to housed cows, although findings are inconsistent.
  • Protein Metabolism:
    • High rumen degradable protein in young pasture grass can impair fertility by increasing blood urea concentration, potentially affecting ovarian activity.
  • Housing Conditions:
    • Loose-housed cows have a lower incidence of parturient paresis, retained placenta, and dystocia compared to tied cows.
    • Crowded housing and slippery floors can reduce reproductive success by limiting oestrus behavior and increasing lameness.

Conclusions

• Variability and Implications:
  • Dairy cow housing varies significantly, from limited housing for supplement provision to permanent housing for diet and movement control.
  • Increasing farm size and milk output trends favor housed systems, impacting cow health and behavior.
• Recommendations:
  • Deep straw housing is generally favored for cow welfare over cubicles or tie stalls.
  • Combining housing with grazing, where feasible, can improve cow health and welfare.

Cow Comfort Monitoring Scheme

Introduction

• Purpose and Scope:
  • A scoring system for dairy cow comfort in free stall barns was developed, tested in the Netherlands, Mexico, and Greece, and correlated with milk yield.

Materials and Methods

• Scoring System:
  • The system includes animal-based and environmental parameters, each weighted variably based on their scores.
  • Farms in different countries were assessed, with data analyzed separately due to climatic differences.

Results

• Findings and Correlations:
  • Mexican and Greek farms scored higher than Dutch farms, with substantial variation between farms.
  • Positive correlation between comfort scores and milk yield was observed in Dutch and Greek farms, but not in Mexican farms.
  • Health factors showed positive correlations with other scored items in Dutch and Greek farms, but not in Mexican farms.
• Comparison with Welfare Quality Assessment:
  • The cow comfort score system had a high correlation (0.84) with the Welfare Quality® Assessment Protocol in Greek farms.
  • Differences in execution time and methodology were noted between the two systems.

Discussion

• System Development and Limitations:
  • The cow comfort scoring system, developed and refined over two years, has minimal limitations in its current form.
  • The variation in scores between countries was attributed to selection criteria and farm records.
  • Health parameters showed unexpected low correlations with milk yield, possibly due to unreliable health records from farmers.
• Practicality and Recommendations:
  • Lying time is a good welfare indicator but impractical to measure directly; evaluating conditions promoting lying is more feasible.
  • Future studies might skip certain health parameters and focus on observer-obtainable data.

In summary, the housing and management of dairy cows have significant implications for their health, behavior, and overall welfare. A balance between indoor housing and grazing, along with improved housing systems, can enhance dairy cow welfare and productivity. The developed cow comfort monitoring scheme provides a practical tool for assessing and improving cow comfort in dairy farms.

Appendix: Score for Cow Comfort on the Dairy Farm

This scoring system is specifically designed for barns with free stalls. Table 3.A1 summarizes the various items of interest for cow comfort at farm level, with the number of points that can be acquired. Indications for the points can be found in the explanation. If the range is e.g., 0-15 points, all numbers of points in between can be given as well. The points can be summed per chapter and totaled for the entire farm. If the minimum score for a chapter is not reached, the difference between the score and the minimum needs to be subtracted from the score. (Example: if for the chapter “General” a total of 8 points is scored, 2 points need to be subtracted, because the minimum score is 10. The score for General will thus be 6). The scoring should be done at least one hour before or after milking, when the cows are at rest.

Table 3.A1. Scoring system for comfort of dairy cows

Minimum	Maximum	Criteria
General	10	20
	0	(-100) Percentage of cows standing idle
	0	(-5) Fear behavior
	3	Stretching when rising from cubicle
	3	Tail is hanging straight and relaxed
	4	Bellowing
	5	(-10) Cows lying in walkways
	0	(-5) Noise (environmental)
Light	10	25
	10	Sufficient light in the barn
	15	Period of light
Ventilation	30	50
	5	It smells fresh (between the animals)
	10	Cobwebs
	10	Condense/mold
	10	Barn temperature
	5	Dead spaces
	10	Draft
Cubicles/Free stalls	40	70
	5	Cows are clean
	5	Bedding is made of inorganic material
	10	(-10) Bedding is soft
	10	Bedding is clean and dry
	5	Stall surface is under a slight angle
	5	(-5) Bedding is flat
	5	Neck rail
	10	Lunge space
	10	Stall dimensions
	5	Brisket board
	0	(-10) Number
Floor	20	45
	10	Slipperiness
	10	Loose/unequal slats
	10	Rubber
	10	Walking
	5	Cleanliness
Feeding Fence	6	15
	5	Headlocks
	3	Height
	7	Number of places
	0	(-3) Contamination
Concentrate Dispenser	0	7
	5	Number
	2	Type
Water	15	25
	10	Number of places
	5	Type of waterer
	5	Cleanliness
	5	Temperature
Waiting Room and Milking Parlour	2	5
	3	Behavior
	2	Time
Walkways and Alleys	3	5
	2	(-2) Width of the alley behind the feeding fence
	2	Width of other walkways
	1	Sufficient passages
Miscellaneous	10	40
	3	Maternity pen
	2	Sick bay
	20	Access to pasture/outside paddock
	15	Is there a mechanical brush?
Animal Health + Feeding	100	200
	5	Hair
	25	(-25) Lameness
	20	(-60) Hocks
	20	(-60) Carpus
	20	Claws
	15	(-15) Mastitis
	10	(-15) Abomasal displacement
	5	(-10) Filling of the rumen
	5	(-10) Milking fever
	5	(-15) Acetonaemia (ketosis)
	15	BCS
	15	Fat %
	25	(-10) Fertility
	15	Calving

Explanation

If the range, given after the item title, is e.g., 0-15 points, all numbers of points in between can be given as well. The numbers presented below are indications, and other values can be used if the situation does not match the descriptions given. The scoring was based on available reports and the experience of the authors and was evaluated extensively in practice over four years.

General

• Percentage of cows standing idle (-100 to 0 points): Cows should only be standing when they eat or drink and should be lying down after eating. Therefore, the number of cows standing in walkways or in their cubicles is a good ‘comfort-indicator. Cows that are waiting in front of the concentrate dispenser, however, are not standing idle; they wait. Count this parameter as the first thing to do when you enter the barn. For each percentage of cows that are standing idle during a quiet period of the day (i.e., >1 h before or after milking): -1 point
• Fear behavior (0-5 points): Cows show you when they are treated well by the farmer. If the cows remain quiet when you enter the barn, make no sudden movements when you get closer, and if they do not look scared: give 3 points. For scared animals: 0 points. If the animals approach you quickly (curiously): 5 points.
• Stretching when rising from cubicle (0-3 points): If a cow lies comfortably, she will stretch before she leaves the cubicle. If she does so: 3 points; otherwise: 0 points. Wait for spontaneously rising cows.
• Tail is hanging straight and relaxed (0-3 points): Stressed cows do not have a relaxed tail. Excited animals can keep their tail straight up, but this can be seen as an expression of very positive welfare. There can be a lot of moving tails due to flies. This is impairing the comfort of the cows. If >90% of the cows have a relaxed, straight tail: 3 points. When you see this in 80-90% of the animals: 2 points, otherwise: 0 points.
• Bellowing (0-4 points): Vocalizations are not common among cows and represent unrest. Animals in oestrus or with cystic ovarian follicle condition will bellow often. When there are no such cows present or there are fewer than twice per 30 min: 4 points; twice per 30 min: 2 points, if there is more bellowing than two times per 30 min: 0 points.
• Cows lying in walkways (-10 to 5 points): Cows should not lie in the walkways. If they do not: 5 points. If there are around 1% of the cows doing so: 0 points; 5% or more: -10 points.
• Noise (-5 to 0 points): Cows do not like noise in their environment. If there is a lot of noise from tractors, shouting, etc., give: -5 points. Some noise: -3 points. Quiet situation: 0 points.

Light

• Sufficient light in the barn (0-10 points): One should be able to read a newspaper easily anywhere in the barn. When the light intensity is measured, it should be >100 lux. If so: 10 points. When there is a moderate level of intensity, or not >100 lux in all places: 5 points. When the level is low or there is bad sight in several places: 0 points.
• Period of light (0-15 points): When the photoperiod is long, cows feel better and produce more milk. However, rest is also important for cattle. A period of darkness (lights out) needs to be included in the daily routine as well. Therefore, if the period of light is >21 h: 0 points; 20 h: 2 points; 19 h: 5 points; 18 h: 7 points, 17 h: 10 points; 16 h: 15 points; 15 h: 12 points; 14 h: 8 points; 13 h: 5 points; 12 h: 3 points; 11 h: 2 points and ≤10 h: 0 points.

Ventilation

• It smells fresh (0-5 points): It should not smell like NH3, H2S, or other toxic gases inside the stables. If there is no ammonium odor: 5 points. A slight odor: 3 points. A bad odor: 0 points.
• Cobwebs (0-10 points): The more cobwebs in a barn, the more this is an indication that there is not enough air movement. If there are no cobwebs present: 10 points. If they are just present in dead angles or in spots that are difficult to reach: 5 points. If they are all over the place: 0 points.
• Condense/mold (0-10 points): Condense and mold indicate problems with air movement as well. If there are no signs of condense or mold: 10 points. If there are some spots where this occurs: 5 points. If it is all over the barn: 0 points.
• Barn temperature (0-10 points): Ideally, the temperature in the barn is the same as the outside temperature. Measure this when the outside temperature is >15°C and when the sun does not shine directly into the barn. If the inside temperature is equal to the outside temperature: 10 points. If it is 2°C higher than the outside temperature: 5 points. If it is higher than this: 0 points.
• Dead spaces (0-5 points): It should be possible to create air movement in the whole barn. If it is possible to get everywhere in the barn: 5 points. If there are some dead angles: 2 points. If there are major dead angles: 0 points.
• Draft (0-10 points): It is good to have air movement, but too much air movement (draft) is not good. Check this with a draught meter If there is no draft present: 10 points. If there are some spots where there is a slight draft: 5 points. If it is much more than this: 0 points.

Cubicles/free stalls

• Cows are clean (0-5 points): Cows should be clean (and dry), which indicates that the cubicles/free stalls are comfortable. Evaluate this as the first thing in the barn. If they are clean and dry: 5 points. If some cows are dirty (5%): 2 points. If more than 5% of the cows are dirty: 0 points.
• Bedding is made of inorganic material (0-5 points): This can be sand, sawdust, or any other type of bedding that can be kept clean easily. If so: 5 points. If not (straw): 0 points.
• Bedding is soft (-10 to 10 points): If the bedding is soft, the cows will lie comfortable. If you let yourself fall on your knees, you should not feel pain. If it is really soft: 10 points. If it feels painful when kneeling: -10 points.
• Bedding is clean and dry (0-10 points): Clean and dry bedding will encourage cows to lie down and prevent diseases (Bell, 2010). If bedding is clean and dry in the whole barn: 10 points. Some spots dirty or wet: 5 points. If there is much dirty or wet bedding: 0 points.
• Stall surface is under a slight angle (0-5 points): The surface of the cubicle should be under a slight angle (3-4%) towards the gutter to keep it dry. If all cubicles are under an angle: 5 points. If there is an angle in more than 75% of the cubicles: 2 points. If there is less than 75% of the cubicles with an angle: 0 points.
• Bedding is flat (-5 to 5 points): The bedding should be flat, and there should not be any holes or bumps. If the bedding is flat in all cubicles: 5 points. If not: 0 points. If the bedding is really bumpy or full of holes: -5 points.
• Neck rail (0-5 points): A neck rail will help keep cows lying in the cubicles and prevent them from standing too far forward. If the neck rail is at the correct height (shoulder height of cows): 5 points. If it is too low or too high: 0 points.
• Lunge space (0-10 points): Cows need lunge space to stand up easily. If there is enough lunge space in all cubicles: 10 points. If more than 75% of the cubicles have enough lunge space: 5 points. If less than 75% have enough lunge space: 0 points.
• Stall dimensions (0-10 points): Cubicles should have the correct dimensions according to the size of the cows. If all cubicles have the correct dimensions: 10 points. If more than 75% have the correct dimensions: 5 points. If less than 75% have the correct dimensions: 0 points.
• Brisket board (0-5 points): The brisket board helps keep cows lying in the correct position. If the brisket board is at the correct height and position: 5 points. If not: 0 points.
• Number (-10 to 0 points): There should be enough cubicles for all cows. If there are more cows than cubicles: -10 points. If there are just enough cubicles: 0 points.

Floor

• Slipperiness (0-10 points): Floors should not be slippery to prevent cows from falling and getting injured. If the floor is not slippery at all: 10 points. If it is slightly slippery: 5 points. If it is very slippery: 0 points.
• Loose/unequal slats (0-10 points): Floors with loose or unequal slats can cause injuries. If there are no loose or unequal slats: 10 points. If there are some loose or unequal slats: 5 points. If there are many loose or unequal slats: 0 points.
• Rubber (0-10 points): Rubber floors are more comfortable for cows to walk on. If all walkways are covered with rubber: 10 points. If more than 75% are covered: 5 points. If less than 75% are covered: 0 points.
• Walking (0-10 points): Cows should be able to walk easily and comfortably in the barn. If they walk easily: 10 points. If they have some difficulty: 5 points. If they have much difficulty: 0 points.
• Cleanliness (0-5 points): Floors should be clean to prevent diseases and improve comfort. If all floors are clean: 5 points. If there are some dirty spots: 2 points. If there are many dirty spots: 0 points.

Feeding Fence

• Headlocks (0-5 points): Headlocks can help manage cows and improve comfort. If all feeding places have headlocks: 5 points. If more than 75% have headlocks: 3 points. If less than 75% have headlocks: 0 points.
• Height (0-3 points): The feeding fence should be at the correct height for cows to eat comfortably. If all feeding fences are at the correct height: 3 points. If more than 75% are at the correct height: 2 points. If less than 75% are at the correct height: 0 points.
• Number of places (0-7 points): There should be enough feeding places for all cows. If there are more feeding places than cows: 7 points. If there are just enough feeding places: 3 points. If there are fewer feeding places than cows: 0 points.
• Contamination (-3 to 0 points): Feeding places should be clean and free from contamination. If all feeding places are clean: 0 points. If there is some contamination: -2 points. If there is much contamination: -3 points.

Concentrate Dispenser

• Number (0-5 points): There should be enough concentrate dispensers for all cows. If there are more dispensers than cows: 5 points. If there are just enough dispensers: 2 points. If there are fewer dispensers than cows: 0 points.
• Type (0-2 points): The type of concentrate dispenser can affect cow comfort. If the dispensers are easy to use and comfortable for cows: 2 points. If they are not easy to use or uncomfortable: 0 points.

Water

• Number of places (0-10 points): There should be enough water places for all cows. If there are more water places than cows: 10 points. If there are just enough water places: 5 points. If there are fewer water places than cows: 0 points.
• Type of waterer (0-5 points): The type of waterer can affect cow comfort. If the waterers are easy to use and comfortable for cows: 5 points. If they are not easy to use or uncomfortable: 0 points.
• Cleanliness (0-5 points): Water places should be clean to prevent diseases and improve comfort. If all water places are clean: 5 points. If there are some dirty spots: 2 points. If there are many dirty spots: 0 points.
• Flow (0-5 points): The water flow should be sufficient for all cows to drink comfortably. If the flow is sufficient: 5 points. If the flow is slightly insufficient: 2 points. If the flow is very insufficient: 0 points.

Outdoor Yard

• Accessibility (0-5 points): Cows should have easy access to the outdoor yard. If all cows have easy access: 5 points. If some cows have difficulty accessing: 2 points. If many cows have difficulty accessing: 0 points.
• Cleanliness (0-10 points): The outdoor yard should be clean to prevent diseases and improve comfort. If the yard is clean: 10 points. If there are some dirty spots: 5 points. If there are many dirty spots: 0 points.
• Surface (0-10 points): The surface of the outdoor yard should be comfortable for cows to walk on. If the surface is comfortable: 10 points. If it is slightly uncomfortable: 5 points. If it is very uncomfortable: 0 points.
• Shade (0-5 points): There should be enough shade in the outdoor yard for all cows. If there is enough shade: 5 points. If there is some shade: 2 points. If there is no shade: 0 points.

Handling and Management

• Handling (0-10 points): Cows should be handled gently and calmly. If handling is always gentle and calm: 10 points. If handling is sometimes rough or stressful: 5 points. If handling is often rough or stressful: 0 points.
• Social behavior (0-5 points): Cows should be able to express their social behavior. If they can always express social behavior: 5 points. If they can sometimes express social behavior: 2 points. If they can rarely express social behavior: 0 points.
• Grouping (0-5 points): Cows should be grouped according to their needs. If grouping is always done according to needs: 5 points. If grouping is sometimes not according to needs: 2 points. If grouping is often not according to needs: 0 points.
• Stockperson (0-10 points): The stockperson should be experienced and knowledgeable. If the stockperson is always experienced and knowledgeable: 10 points. If the stockperson is sometimes inexperienced or not knowledgeable: 5 points. If the stockperson is often inexperienced or not knowledgeable: 0 points.
• Training (0-5 points): The stockperson should receive regular training. If training is always regular: 5 points. If training is sometimes irregular: 2 points. If training is often irregular: 0 points.

Conclusion

This scoring system provides a comprehensive way to evaluate cow comfort in barns. Each aspect of the barn environment is considered, and points are awarded based on the level of comfort provided. A higher total score indicates better cow comfort, which can lead to improved health, productivity, and welfare for the cows. Regular assessments using this scoring system can help identify areas for improvement and ensure that cows are kept in the best possible conditions.

Scoring Summary

• Total possible points: 200
• Excellent comfort: 180-200 points
• Good comfort: 160-179 points
• Fair comfort: 140-159 points
• Poor comfort: <140 points

By regularly evaluating cow comfort using this scoring system, farmers can ensure that their cows are kept in an environment that promotes their health, welfare, and productivity.

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Updated Cow Comfort Scoring System

Housing and Barn Environment

Stall Comfort (40 points)

• Dimensions (10 points): Proper stall dimensions for the breed. Ideal dimensions: 10 points. Slightly off: 5 points. Poor dimensions: 0 points.
• Bedding Quality (10 points): Quality and amount of bedding. Deep and clean bedding: 10 points. Moderate bedding: 5 points. Insufficient or dirty bedding: 0 points.
• Cleanliness (10 points): Cleanliness of the stalls. Clean stalls: 10 points. Some dirty spots: 5 points. Many dirty spots: 0 points.
• Ventilation (10 points): Adequate air flow and ventilation. Good ventilation: 10 points. Moderate ventilation: 5 points. Poor ventilation: 0 points.

Maternity Pen (3 points)

• Contact with Other Cows (1 point): No physical contact with other cows.
• Bedding (1 point): Ample straw bedding.
• Cleanliness (0.5 points): Clean pen.
• Space (0.5 points): Sufficient space.

Sick Bay (2 points)

• Contact with Other Cows (0.5 points): No physical contact with other cows.
• Bedding (0.5 points): Ample straw bedding.
• Cleanliness (0.5 points): Clean pen.
• Space (0.5 points): Sufficient space.

Access to Pasture/Outside Paddock (20 points)

• Access (10 points): Cows have access to pasture at all times (10 points), during summer day and night (7 points), during summer at night (5 points), voluntary access (3 points).
• Shade (5 points): Sufficient shade in the pasture during hot summer days.
• Pasture Quality (5 points): Good quality pasture.

Brush (15 points)

• Brush (5 points): Presence of a brush.
• Motorized Brush (10 points): Presence of a motorized brush.

Water Access (10 points)

• Availability (5 points): Continuous access to water.
• Cleanliness (5 points): Clean and fresh water.

Outdoor Yard (30 points)

• Accessibility (5 points): Easy access for all cows.
• Cleanliness (10 points): Clean outdoor yard.
• Surface (10 points): Comfortable surface for walking.
• Shade (5 points): Sufficient shade.

Handling and Management (35 points)

• Gentle Handling (10 points): Always handled gently and calmly.
• Social Behavior (5 points): Ability to express social behavior.
• Grouping (5 points): Grouping according to needs.
• Experienced Stockperson (10 points): Experienced and knowledgeable.
• Regular Training (5 points): Regular training for the stockperson.

Animal Health & Feeding (110 points)

• Hair (5 points): Upright, shiny hair with no lesions.
• Lameness (-25 to 25 points): <10% per year: 25 points, >80% per year: -25 points.
• Thick Hocks (-60 to 20 points): <5% per year: 20 points, >80% per year: -60 points.
• Thick Carpi (-60 to 20 points): <5% per year: 20 points, >80% per year: -60 points.
• Claws (20 points): Perfect claws: 20 points, poor claws: 0 points.
• Mastitis (-15 to 15 points): <5% per year: 15 points, >80% per year: -15 points.
• Abomasal Dislocations (-15 to 10 points): 0% per year: 10 points, >15% per year: -15 points.
• Filling of the Rumen (-10 to 5 points): Good: 5 points, bad: -10 points.
• Milk Fever (-10 to 5 points): 0% per year: 5 points, >15% per year: -10 points.
• Ketosis (-15 to 5 points): 0% per year: 5 points, >15% per year: -15 points.
• Body Condition Score (15 points): Average BCS equal to desired score: 15 points.
• Fat % in Milk (15 points): <0.5% deviation: 15 points, >1% deviation: 0 points.
• Fertility (-10 to 25 points): Good: 25 points, bad: -10 points.
• Calving (15 points): 0-5% needed assistance: 15 points, >15%: 0 points.

Scoring Summary

• Total possible points: 300
• Excellent comfort: 270-300 points
• Good comfort: 240-269 points
• Fair comfort: 210-239 points
• Poor comfort: <210 points

By using this detailed scoring system, farmers can effectively monitor and improve the comfort and welfare of their cows, leading to better health and productivity.

Bedding Materials for Livestock Housing

Absorption and Comfort Characteristics

• Fernery:
  • Absorption: Limited absorption of urine.
  • Comfort: Used regularly in the past, but not very comfortable.
• Rice Straw:
  • Absorption: Less absorbent than other cereals but serves as a good substitute.
  • Comfort: Moderate comfort.
• Paper or Cardboard:
  • Usage: Often used in combination with straw and/or sawdust.
  • Issues: Ink presence could be problematic.
• Compost:
  • Absorption: High absorption.
  • Comfort: Comfortable with a layer of 20 cm required.
  • Hygiene: Hygiene could be a problem; maintenance is crucial.
• Sand:
  • Absorption: Not suitable.
  • Comfort: High comfort with a 20 cm layer required.

Straw-Based Systems

Straw is a versatile bedding material used in various housing systems, including loose housing (straw yards, sloped floor systems), cubicle systems, and tied housing. Common types include wheat, barley, rice, and rapeseed straw.

• Straw Yard Systems:
  • Usage: Straw spread over the entire resting area.
  • Requirements: 1.0 to 1.2 kg/day/m² of straw; chopped straw (200-300 mm) is preferred.
  • Maintenance: Fresh, dry, mould-free straw must be added daily.
• Cubicle Systems and Tied Housing:
  • Requirements: 2.5 to 3 kg of straw per cow per day on a concrete base without a kerb.
  • Maintenance: Wet bedding and manure should be removed twice daily; clean, dry bedding added at least twice a week.
  • Issues: Availability and cost of straw can be limiting factors. Straw-manure mattresses and other alternatives are being used to reduce straw usage while maintaining comfort and hygiene.

Compost and Manure Solids

• Compost Barns:
  • Structure: Concrete feed alley and a bedded pack resting area.
  • Maintenance: Fresh bedding (dry, fine wood shavings) added every 2 to 7 weeks; surface stirred twice daily.
  • Comfort: High lying comfort, with minimal abrasions or joint inflammations.
• Manure Solids:
  • Processing: Raw slurry is separated into solids and liquid phases using a screw press separator.
  • Usage: Solids used as bedding material in cubicles, replenished every 1 to 3 weeks.
  • Comfort: Compact and malleable lying surface.

Sawdust, Wood Chips, Bark, and Shavings

• Sawdust:
  • Comfort: Provides a comfortable lying surface with a minimum layer thickness of 10-15 cm.
  • Issues: Higher bacterial load, increasing risk for environmental mastitis.
• Wood Chips and Bark:
  • Usage: More common in open wintering pens and exercise yards for drainage.
  • Concerns: Sharp particles can cause injuries.

Sand

• Usage: Popular in Northern America and increasingly in Europe.
  • Comfort: Offers high comfort with low bacterial counts.
  • Maintenance: Requires a base height of sand, old car tires, or wafer-like rubber mats to maintain bedding height and comfort.
  • Benefits: Longer resting times, cleaner cows, fewer hock lesions.

Mats and Mattresses

Various mats and mattresses are available, made from materials like rubber and geotextile, differing in thickness, softness, and cover material.

• General Requirements:
  • Comfort: Must be soft, durable, elastic, provide grip, and be easy to clean.
  • Issues: Rubber mats can be too thin and hard, causing injuries. Soft coverings can reduce lameness and increase activity but may lead to lying in passageways if cubicles are inadequately designed.

Walking Surfaces for Cattle

• Clean and Dry Flooring:
  • Importance: Prevents lameness and infections.
  • Maintenance: Solid floors require frequent manure removal; slatted floors need regular scraping.
• Physical Properties:
  • Hardness: Abrasive surfaces cause discomfort and abnormal hoof growth. Soft surfaces improve claw health and animal activity.

Conclusion

Choosing the right bedding material involves balancing comfort, hygiene, availability, and cost. Straw, compost, and sand offer various benefits, but proper maintenance and management are crucial to ensuring animal welfare and health.

Physical Properties of the Floor: Slip Resistance and Abrasiveness

Slip Resistance

Slip resistance is a critical factor in preventing injuries in cattle, such as split legs, falls, traumatic claw injuries, or claws getting caught. The slip resistance of a floor is determined by the friction coefficient between the claw and the floor surface. Higher friction coefficients indicate greater slip resistance. The required coefficient of friction (COF) for cattle depends on their behavior (walking straight, turning, fleeing, or stopping) and the stance phase (from initial contact to push-off).

• Range of COF: The COF for moving cows ranges from 0.3 to 0.85, with 0.85 being the maximum for various behaviors and stance phases.
• Concrete Floors: Dry and clean concrete floors typically have a COF of about 0.40 or less, which is below the critical value of 0.4 where the risk of slipping increases exponentially.
• Factors Affecting Slip Resistance: Slurry coating, measurement methods, and wear due to mechanical cleaning and animal movements can affect slip resistance.

Abrasiveness

While a high COF is desirable for slip resistance, it can lead to excessive abrasiveness, causing wear and tear on cattle claws.

• Concrete and Asphalt: High COF floors like concrete or mastic asphalt are often too abrasive, leading to claw wear. The optimum COF for concrete floors is between 0.4 and 0.5 considering the slurry effect.
• Grooved Patterns: Grooves in concrete can improve grip but do not significantly change cow locomotion unless the surface between the grooves is also altered. Slatted floors can be resistant or slippery depending on the direction of movement relative to the slats.
• Epoxy Resin Coatings: Coating concrete floors with epoxy resin and mineral aggregates can greatly increase COF, but also increase abrasion rates.
• Rubber Flooring: Rubber floors can provide adequate slip resistance without excessive abrasiveness. However, pure rubber mats may reduce claw wear to the extent that frequent trimming is necessary.

Specific Floor Types and Their Effects

Cattle

• Solid Floors: Preferable for large contact areas between claw and floor, reducing mechanical stress.
• Slatted Floors: Should run perpendicular to the walkway to minimize mechanical impact.
• Rubber Flooring: Soft floors like rubber can balance slip resistance and abrasiveness but may require more frequent claw trimming.

Pigs

• Farrowing Pens: Floors must balance the needs of sows and piglets. Sows need abrasive surfaces to prevent slipping when standing or lying down, while piglets need soft, slatted surfaces to avoid foot and leg lesions.
• Rearing Pigs: Floors impact activity levels, cleanliness, and injury prevalence. Partly-slatted floors are preferable to fully-slatted floors for reducing injuries like bursitis and claw lesions.

Poultry

• Litter Management: Quality of litter (straw, wood shavings, etc.) is crucial for broiler chickens and turkeys, affecting contact dermatitis and respiratory health.
• Cage Floors: For laying hens, the presence of litter or substrate allows for natural behaviors like dust bathing.

Conclusion

For both cattle and pigs, floor properties significantly impact claw and leg health. Floors that are too soft can lead to overgrown claws, while slippery floors can cause joint and bone injuries. Proper design and maintenance of flooring, including the use of rubber mats or coatings, are essential for ensuring animal welfare and minimizing injuries. Further research is needed on the optimal use of rubber and other materials in livestock flooring.

Overview

The housing of sows during farrowing has primarily utilized farrowing crates, which confine sows and limit their ability to move. This practice raises welfare concerns and has led to a push for alternative housing systems, particularly loose housing pens that could better meet the behavioral needs of sows and their piglets.

Key Points

1. Historical Context and Current Practices:
   • Farrowing crates became popular in the 1960s-70s due to their space-saving design and effective manure management.
   • Crates reportedly do not increase mortality rates and are seen as economically viable compared to traditional pen systems.
2. Welfare Consequences of Crating:
   • Crated sows cannot express natural behaviors like nest building, leading to increased stress and stereotypies.
   • They face challenges in thermoregulation and often experience physical health issues due to restricted movement.
   • Confinement during farrowing and lactation can lead to higher stress responses and negative effects on muscle and bone strength.
3. Space Requirements:
   • Current farrowing crates are often too small to accommodate the size and behavior of modern sows and their litters.
   • Recommendations for pen sizes suggest a minimum of 5.6 m², including sufficient space for piglets to suckle and rest.
4. Piglet Mortality:
   • Studies show no significant difference in overall piglet mortality between crated and loose-housed sows.
   • Mortality rates increase with larger litter sizes, but this relationship appears similar in both housing types.
   • Common causes of mortality include stillbirths and the physical stress of confinement, which can prolong birthing and contribute to higher stillbirth rates.
5. Prototypes and Recommendations:
   • Ongoing research has led to the development and testing of farrowing pen prototypes that aim to improve sow welfare while maintaining productivity.
   • Behavioral needs and environmental factors have guided the design recommendations for these pens.

Conclusion

The review underscores the need for innovative housing solutions that enhance sow welfare during farrowing while maintaining productivity in the swine industry. The shift towards loose housing systems is gaining momentum, particularly in light of increasing public concern over animal welfare. Continued research is vital to refine pen designs and validate their effectiveness in commercial settings

Design of Farrowing Pens for Loose-Housed Sows: Key Principles and Recommendations

1. Prevention of Crushing

Crushing of piglets by sows in loose housing is primarily due to the sows lying down without wall support. Studies show:

• Wall Support: Sows lying against a wall reduce piglet mortality risk significantly (0.5% vs. 14% without wall support).
• Rail Design: While farrowing rails are common, sows prefer lying against rail-free walls, indicating a design need for wall support that encourages safe lying behavior.
• Double Walls: Using inner and outer walls creates escape zones for piglets, minimizing the risk of crushing.

2. Encouraging Nest-Building

Promoting natural nesting behaviors can reduce piglet crushing. Recommendations include:

• Access to Nesting Material: Providing straw or similar materials encourages active nesting, reducing the likelihood of risky behaviors during parturition.
• Nesting Behavior Studies: Studies indicate that increased nesting activity correlates with reduced crushing incidents and more stable maternal behavior.

3. Space Allocation for Sows and Piglets

Sufficient space is crucial for:

• Ease of Movement: Adequate space allows sows to lie down comfortably without interfering with piglet nursing.
• Dynamic Space Requirements: The design must accommodate the sows’ need to get up and lie down, as well as allow all piglets to rest comfortably.

4. Thermal Comfort

Balancing thermal needs is essential, as:

• Temperature Differences: Sows thrive at around 22°C, while newborn piglets need temperatures above 34°C.
• Heating Solutions: Implementing floor heating and maintaining higher ambient temperatures during farrowing can significantly improve piglet survival rates.

5. Zone Division in Pens

Creating distinct areas within the pen helps manage hygiene and encourages natural behaviors:

• Resting and Dunging Areas: Sows tend to zone their space into areas for nesting and elimination.
• Dunging Away from Feeders: Sows prefer to dung away from feeding areas, which can be achieved through strategic placement of feeders.

6. Physical Layout Recommendations

Design suggestions include:

• Slope and Dimensions: Sloping walls with escape zones increase safety for piglets and encourage sows to lie in designated areas.
• Creep Areas: Designated heated areas for piglets should be at least 1.1 m², ensuring they can maintain optimal body temperatures.

7. Overall Design Considerations

• Loose Housing Throughout the Cycle: Maintaining loose housing during the entire reproductive cycle decreases stress and facilitates natural behaviors.
• Pen Design for Access: Position pens for easy observation and access, minimizing disturbances during routine management.
• Confinement for Handling: Include mechanisms for safely confining sows during health interventions or aggressive behaviors.

Conclusion

The transition from traditional farrowing crates to well-designed loose housing systems can enhance both sow welfare and piglet survival. The insights gained from behavioral studies and physiological responses provide a solid foundation for creating effective farrowing pens that support the needs of sows, piglets, and farmers alike. These designs hold potential as competitive alternatives to existing systems, improving both animal welfare and productivity in swine production.

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